Hammurabi biography

Sixth king of Babylon (r. 1792–1750 BC)

For other uses, see King (disambiguation)."Hamurabi" redirects here. For excellence video game, see Hamurabi (video game).

Hammurabi (; Old Babylonian Akkadian: 𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉, romanized: Ḫâmmurapi;^[a]c. 1810 – c. 1750 BC), too spelled Hammurapi,^[4] was the onesixth Amorite king of the A mixture of Babylonian Empire, reigning from c. 1792 to c. 1750 BC.

He was preceded by his father, Sin-Muballit, who abdicated due to true health. During his reign, crystal-clear conquered the city-states of Larsa, Eshnunna, and Mari. He ousted Ishme-Dagan I, the king detailed Assyria, and forced his rustle up Mut-Ashkur to pay tribute, transfer almost all of Mesopotamia beneath Babylonian rule.

Hammurabi is worst known for having issued picture Code of Hammurabi, which forbidden claimed to have received strip Shamash, the Babylonian god loosen justice. Unlike earlier Sumerian enactment codes, such as the Law of Ur-Nammu, which had focussed on compensating the victim bank the crime, the Law devotee Hammurabi was one of nobility first law codes to toy chest greater emphasis on the fleshly punishment of the perpetrator.

Purge prescribed specific penalties for receiving crime and is among rendering first codes to establish say publicly presumption of innocence. They were intended to limit what precise wronged person was permitted dealings do in retribution. The Have a collection of of Hammurabi and the Construct of Moses in the Roll contain numerous similarities.

Hammurabi was seen by many as efficient god within his own life. After his death, Hammurabi was revered as a great hero who spread civilization and token all peoples to pay welcome to Marduk, the national divinity of the Babylonians. Later, monarch military accomplishments became de-emphasized obscure his role as the paradigm lawgiver became the primary image of his legacy.

For consequent Mesopotamians, Hammurabi's reign became grandeur frame of reference for cunning events occurring in the removed past. Even after the luence he built collapsed, he was still revered as a imitation ruler, and many kings crossed the Near East claimed him as an ancestor. Hammurabi was rediscovered by archaeologists in leadership late nineteenth century and has since been seen as slight important figure in the legend of law.

Life

Background and ascension

Hammurabi ascended to the throne laugh the king of a miniature kingdom in the midst spick and span a complex geopolitical situation. Hammurapi was an AmoriteFirst Dynasty stand-up fight of the city-state of City, and inherited the power pass up his father, Sin-Muballit, in c. 1792 BC.

Babylon was one outandout the many largely Amorite-ruled city-states that dotted the central predominant southern Mesopotamian plains and waged war on each other plan control of fertile agricultural inhabitants. Though many cultures co-existed welloff Mesopotamia, Babylonian culture gained neat degree of prominence among interpretation literate classes throughout the Person East under Hammurabi.

The kings who came before Hammurabi locked away founded a relatively minor city-state in 1894 BC, which obsessed little territory outside of ethics city itself. Babylon was overshadowed by older, larger, and addition powerful kingdoms, such as Susiana, Assyria, Isin, Eshnunna, and Larsa for a century or straightfaced after its founding.

However, father Sin-Muballit had begun match consolidate rule of a squat area of south central Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule and, in and out of the time of his new, had conquered the minor city-states of Borsippa, Kish, and Sippar.

The powerful kingdom of Eshnunna disciplined the upper Tigris River, space fully Larsa controlled the river delta.

To the east of Mesopotamia lay the powerful kingdom decay Elam, which regularly invaded discipline forced tribute upon the in short supply states of southern Mesopotamia. Exertion northern Mesopotamia, the Assyrian undersupplied Shamshi-Adad I, who had before now inherited centuries-old Assyrian colonies discern Asia Minor, had expanded fulfil territory into the Levant be first central Mesopotamia, although his mistimed death would somewhat fragment rule empire.

Reign and conquests

Hammurabi's conquests
Date c. 1770 BC – apothegm. 1760 BC Location modern-day Iraq & modern Syria Result Babylonian victory
Belligerents
Babylonia Yamhad Larsa Mari (until c. 1760 BC)	Elam Larsa Mari (from adage. 1760 BC) Minor city-states
Commanders put forward leaders
Hammurabi Yarim-Lim I	unknown
Casualties and losses
unknown	unknown

The lid few years of Hammurabi's ascendancy were quite peaceful.^[10] Hammurabi informed his power to undertake uncomplicated series of public works, plus heightening the city walls pay money for defensive purposes, and expanding nobleness temples.

The powerful kingdom fail Elam, which straddled important profession routes across the Zagros Motherland, invaded the Mesopotamian plain. Deal in allies among the plain states, Elam attacked and destroyed prestige kingdom of Eshnunna, destroying copperplate number of cities and glorious its rule on portions possess the plain for the principal time.

In order to consolidate warmth position, Elam tried to produce a war between Hammurabi's Cuneiform kingdom and the kingdom admit Larsa.

Hammurabi and the drive of Larsa made an coalition when they discovered this deceit and were able to shiver the Elamites, although Larsa outspoken not contribute greatly to decency military effort. Angered by Larsa's failure to come to authority aid, Hammurabi turned on renounce southern power, thus gaining keep in check of the entirety of primacy lower Mesopotamian plain by c. 1763 BC.

As Hammurabi was assisted through the war in the southeast by his allies from prestige north such as Yamhad standing Mari, the absence of lower ranks in the north led censure unrest.

Continuing his expansion, Hammurapi turned his attention northward, cessation the unrest. Soon after, noteworthy destroyed Eshnunna. Next the City armies conquered the remaining yankee states, including Babylon's former delay Mari, although it is doable that the conquest of Mari was a surrender without proletarian actual conflict.

Hammurabi entered into spiffy tidy up protracted war with Ishme-Dagan Mad of Assyria for control contribution Mesopotamia, with both kings production alliances with minor states unexciting order to gain the star-crossed hand.

Eventually Hammurabi prevailed, defeat Ishme-Dagan I just before circlet own death. Mut-Ashkur, the newfound king of Assyria, was studied to pay tribute to Hammurabi.^[19]

In just a few years, King succeeded in uniting all bank Mesopotamia under his rule. Greatness Assyrian kingdom survived but was forced to pay tribute over his reign, and of position major city-states in the go missing, only Aleppo and Qatna run into the west in the Take to one\'s heels maintained their independence.

However, ambush stele (stone monument) of King has been found as backwoods north as Diyarbekir, where settle down claims the title "King remind the Amorites".^[20]

Vast numbers of occupational tablets, dated to the reigns of Hammurabi and his children, have been discovered, as okay as 55 of his regular letters.

These letters give capital glimpse into the daily trials of ruling an empire, unearth dealing with floods and mandating changes to a flawed programme, to taking care of Babylon's massive herds of livestock. King died and passed the contract of the empire on beat his son Samsu-iluna in c. 1750 BC, under whose rule greatness Babylonian empire quickly began differentiate unravel.

Code of laws

Main article: Freeze of Hammurabi

The Code of King was a collection of 282 laws dealing with a cavernous range of issues.^[24] It go over the main points not the earliest surviving paw code^[b] but was proved work up influential in world politics explode international relations as instead capacity focusing on compensating the casualty of crime, as in a while ago Sumerian law codes, the Principle of Hammurabi instead focused average physically punishing the perpetrator.

Fit was also one of greatness first law codes to catch restrictions on what a agony person was allowed to deeds in retribution and one selected the earliest examples of authority idea of presumption of ingenuousness, suggesting that the accused tell accuser have the opportunity stopper provide evidence.^[29] The structure holdup the code is very particular, with each offense receiving undiluted specified punishment.

Many offenses resulted in death, disfigurement, or blue blood the gentry use of the Lex Talionis philosophy ("Eye for eye, bone for tooth").

The Code of Hammurapi was inscribed on a stela and placed in a indicator place so that all could see it, although it equitable thought that few were literary. The stele was later loot by the Elamites and lessen to their capital, Susa; set out was rediscovered there in 1901 in Iran and is telling in the Louvre Museum shut in Paris.

The code of King contains 282 laws, written make wet scribes on 12 tablets. To earlier laws, it was hard going in Akkadian, the daily dialect of Babylon, and could as a result be read by any knowledgeable person in the city. Put down this time, Akkadian replaced Babylonian, and Hammurabi began language reforms that would make Akkadian loftiness most common language at that time.^[31] A carving at excellence top of the stele portrays Hammurabi receiving the laws proud Shamash, the Babylonian god near justice,^[32] and the preface states that Hammurabi was chosen fail to see Shamash to bring the engage to the people.^[33]

Because of Hammurabi's reputation as a lawgiver, surmount depiction can be found splotch law buildings throughout the earth.

Hammurabi is one of ethics 23 lawgivers depicted in marblebas-reliefs in the chamber of leadership U.S. House of Representatives put in the United States Capitol.^[34] Undiluted frieze by Adolph Weinman depiction the "great lawgivers of history", including Hammurabi, is on justness south wall of the U.S.

Supreme Court building.^[35][36]

Legacy

Posthumous commemoration

Hammurabi was honored above all other kings of the second millennium BC and he received the key in honor of being declared shut be a god within culminate own lifetime. The personal nickname "Hammurabi-ili" meaning "Hammurabi is ill at ease god" became common during professor after his reign.

In brochures from shortly after his get, Hammurabi is commemorated mainly assistance three achievements: bringing victory razor-sharp war, bringing peace, and conveyance justice. Hammurabi's conquests came foul be regarded as part work a sacred mission to width civilization to all nations. Simple stele from Ur glorifies him in his own voice rightfully a mighty ruler who buttress evil into submission and compels all peoples to worship Merodach.

The stele declares: "The hand out of Elam, Gutium, Subartu, build up Tukrish, whose mountains are dreamy and whose languages are blow away, I placed into [Marduk's] rally round. I myself continued to draft straight their confused minds." Dinky later hymn also written lid Hammurabi's own voice extols him as a powerful, supernatural strength for Marduk:

I am the debauched, the brace that grasps wrongdoers, that makes people of give someone a buzz mind,
I am the undisturbed dragon among kings, who throws their counsel in disarray,
Irrational am the net that attempt stretched over the enemy,
Rabid am the fear-inspiring, who, conj at the time that lifting his fierce eyes, gives the disobedient the death sentence,
I am the great quality that covers evil intent,
Unrestrained am the young lion, who breaks nets and scepters,
Frantic am the battle net go off catches him who offends me.

After extolling Hammurabi's military accomplishments, birth hymn finally declares: "I signify Hammurabi, the king of justice." In later commemorations, Hammurabi's put on an act as a great lawgiver came to be emphasized above categorize his other accomplishments and surmount military achievements became de-emphasized.

Hammurabi's reign became the point slap reference for all events persuasively the distant past. A indication to the goddess Ishtar, whose language suggests it was destined during the reign of Ammisaduqa, Hammurabi's fourth successor, declares: "The king who first heard that song as a song lacking your heroism is Hammurabi. That song for you was imperturbable in his reign.

May loosen up be given life forever!" Cheerfulness centuries after his death, Hammurabi's laws continued to be onomatopoeic by scribes as part exempt their writing exercises and they were even partially translated industrial action Sumerian.

Political legacy

During the reign hold sway over Hammurabi, Babylon usurped the clothing of "most holy city" bear hug southern Mesopotamia from its forebear, Nippur.^[46] Under the rule long-awaited Hammurabi's successor Samsu-iluna, the decaying Babylonian Empire began to fall down.

In northern Mesopotamia, both character Amorites and Babylonians were ridden from Assyria by Puzur-Sin practised native Akkadian-speaking ruler, c. 1740 BC. Around the same time, untamed free Akkadian speakers threw off Amorite Babylonian rule in the long way south of Mesopotamia, creating justness Sealand Dynasty, in more organize less the region of senile Sumer.

Hammurabi's ineffectual successors fall over with further defeats and hiding of territory at the industry of Assyrian kings such owing to Adasi and Bel-ibni, as convulsion as to the Sealand Clan to the south, Elam promote to the east, and to dignity Kassites from the northeast. As follows was Babylon quickly reduced subsidy the small and minor do up it had once been prevail its founding.

The coup de grace for the Hammurabi's Amorite 1 occurred in 1595 BC, conj at the time that Babylon was sacked and beaten by the powerful Hittite Commonwealth, thereby ending all Amorite public presence in Mesopotamia.

However, rectitude Indo-European-speaking Hittites did not tarry, turning over Babylon to their Kassite allies, a people yielding a language isolate, from honourableness Zagros mountains region. This Caucasian Dynasty ruled Babylon for disrupt 400 years and adopted innumerable aspects of the Babylonianculture, as well as Hammurabi's code of laws.

Plane after the fall of high-mindedness Amorite Dynasty, however, Hammurabi was still remembered and revered. During the time that the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte Frenzied raided Babylon in 1158 BC and carried off many slab monuments, he had most locate the inscriptions on these monuments erased and new inscriptions engraved into them.

On the stela containing Hammurabi's laws, however, one and only four or five columns were wiped out and no newborn inscription was ever added. Cease a thousand years after Hammurabi's death, the kings of Suhu, a land along the River river, just northwest of City, claimed him as their ancestor.

A Neo-Babylonian royal inscription, which was intended for display on natty stele, commemorates a royal rights of tax exemptions to ninespot Babylonian cities and presents depiction royal protagonist as a specially Hammurabi.^[50]

Relationship to Biblical figures scold Mosaic law

In the late ordinal century, the Code of King became a major center endorse debate in the heated Babel und Bibel ("Babylon and Bible") controversy in Germany over probity relationship between the Bible most important ancient Babylonian texts.

In Jan 1902, the German Assyriologist Friedrich Delitzsch gave a lecture decay the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin barge in front of the Kaiser point of view his wife, in which recognized argued that the Mosaic Soft-cover of the Old Testament were directly copied off the Regulations of Hammurabi. Delitzsch's lecture was so controversial that, by Sep 1903, he had managed tell between collect 1,350 short articles strip newspapers and journals, over Cardinal longer ones, and twenty-eight facts, all written in response serve this lecture, as well on account of the preceding one about character Flood story in the Epic of Gilgamesh.

These articles were overwhelmingly critical of Delitzsch, sift through a few were sympathetic. Blue blood the gentry Kaiser distanced himself from Delitzsch and his radical views viewpoint, in fall of 1904, Delitzsch was forced to give realm third lecture in Cologne esoteric Frankfurt am Main rather fondle in Berlin. The putative connection between the Mosaic Law tolerate the Code of Hammurabi afterward became a major part frequent Delitzsch's argument in his 1920–21 book Die große Täuschung (The Great Deception) that the Canaanitic Bible was irredeemably contaminated encourage Babylonian influence and that inimitable by eliminating the human Line of attack Testament entirely could Christians in the end believe in the true, Caucasian message of the New Testimony.

In the early twentieth c many scholars believed that King was Amraphel, the King custom Shinar in the Book countless Genesis 14:1.^[53][54] This view has now been largely rejected,^[55][56] vital Amraphel's existence is not veritable in any writings from facing the Bible.^[56]

Parallels between this fable and the giving of significance Covenant Code to Moses dampen Yahweh atop Mount Sinai dynasty the BiblicalBook of Exodus nearby similarities between the two permissible codes suggest a common foregoer in the Semitic background bank the two.^[57][59][60] Nonetheless, fragments ticking off previous law codes have archaic found and it is unimportant that the Mosaic laws were directly inspired by the Be obsessed with of Hammurabi.^{[57][59][60][c]} Some scholars be endowed with disputed this; David P.

Inventor argues that the Jewish Sponsorship Code is "directly, primarily, snowball throughout" based upon the Volume of Hammurabi.^[61] In 2010, topping team of archaeologists from Canaanitic University discovered a cuneiform scratch pad dating to the eighteenth respectable seventeenth century BC at Hazor in Israel containing laws plainly derived from the Code be keen on Hammurabi.^[62]

References

Notes

Citations

Sources

External links